Drinking up to five cups of coffee daily is safe for most healthy adults and may even lower the risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes, the American Heart Association said in a statement.
The statement, published in the journal Circulation, concluded that moderate coffee consumption, up to 400 milligrams of caffeine daily, equivalent to about three to five 8-ounce cups of coffee, is generally safe and linked to a lower risk of several cardiovascular conditions.
The review, which analysed evidence from large population studies and randomised clinical trials, found that moderate coffee intake was associated with lower risks of coronary heart disease, stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, hypertension and type 2 diabetes.
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However, the AHA said the evidence does not prove that coffee directly prevents these conditions, noting that people respond differently to caffeine depending on their age, genetics, medications and underlying health conditions.
Lead author of the study at the University of California, San Francisco, Dr Gregory Marcus, said the available evidence supports moderate coffee consumption for most adults.
“The convergence of evidence from large cohort studies and small randomised controlled trials supports the conclusion that moderate caffeine or coffee consumption is safe for most adults and is associated with lower risk of cardiovascular disease,” he said.
The review found that people who drank two to four cups of coffee daily had the lowest overall risk of death, regardless of whether the coffee was caffeinated or decaffeinated.
On blood pressure, the AHA said findings were mixed. While some studies linked drinking one to three cups daily with a slightly higher risk of hypertension, others found that people who consumed more than three cups had a lower long-term risk.
The report also found that regular coffee drinkers were less likely to develop type 2 diabetes, with studies showing that consuming 3.5 to five cups daily was associated with a 20 to 30 per cent lower risk.
Researchers suggested the protective effect may be due to naturally occurring compounds in coffee rather than caffeine alone.
The statement further noted that drinking around 1.5 to 3.5 cups of coffee daily was associated with about a 10 per cent lower risk of coronary artery disease, while approximately four cups daily was linked to the lowest risk of heart failure.
Moderate coffee consumption was also associated with a lower risk of atrial fibrillation, although researchers found it could increase premature ventricular contractions in some people.
The AHA warned that not all coffee has the same health effects, stating that unfiltered coffee, including French press and Turkish coffee, can increase levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), commonly known as bad cholesterol, because it contains higher levels of cafestol, a natural compound removed during filtering.
It also cautioned against adding large amounts of sugar, flavoured syrups and cream to coffee, saying they could offset its potential health benefits.
The association stressed that its findings do not apply to energy drinks or caffeine shots, which often contain much higher caffeine levels and added sugars linked to increased blood pressure and heart rhythm problems.
Marcus advised people to pay attention to how their bodies respond to caffeine.
“People can respond very differently to caffeine based on factors such as age, medications, underlying health conditions and genetics. What is a reasonable amount for one person may cause heart palpitations, anxiety or sleep disruption in another,” he said.
The AHA called for more research to better understand how caffeine affects different individuals and whether people who do not currently drink coffee would benefit from starting.
It added that coffee should be consumed as part of an overall healthy lifestyle that includes a balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep and avoiding tobacco.
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